Seated on a bed of rock that rises above surging waves, Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva is adorned in a splendid crown and a long, deep blue strip of ornamental cloth. A green head halo and radiant body halo are depicted behind the bodhisattva, and to the right is a small person with outstretched hands. This elegant portrayal of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva in Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara is inspired by a scene from the epic journey of a disciple named Sudhana, who traveled in search of spiritual teachers on his path to enlightenment.

Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva is the Buddhist embodiment of compassion, a benevolent presence who helps guide people through times of trouble and rescue them from worldly suffering. When sentient beings call upon Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva by name in times of distress, Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva responds to their call and offers salvation. According to Buddhist scriptures, Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva resides on Mount Potalaka across the sea in southern India.

In the Avatamsaka Sutra (華嚴經), the chapter “Entrance to the Dharma Realm” tells the story of Sudhana’s journey to enlightenment, wherein he travels the world to meet fifty-three spiritual teachers. As depicted in this painting, the twenty-eighth teacher that Sudhana visits is Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva. According to the scriptures, Sudhana arrived in a secluded valley to the west of Mount Potalaka, filled with a tranquil stream, lush forests, and a profusion of beautiful flowers in various colors. Sudhana sees Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva seated on a rock, surrounded by numerous bodhisattvas, and thus approaches to pay his respects and seek guidance.

The popular theme of the “Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara,” depicting the encounter between Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva and Sudhana, originated from a famous work by China’s Zhou Fang, a court painter of the Tang Dynasty. Paintings of this theme, which typically show Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva seated on rough rocks and looking down upon Sudhana, were widely produced in both China and the Goryeo Dynasty. Famous Paintings Throughout History (歷代名畫記), written by the art theorist Zhang Yanyuan of the Tang Dynasty based on his collection and research of calligraphy and painting, specifically mentions the bamboo and the radiant round light in Zhou Fang’s painting of the Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara, details which are also commonly featured in Goryeo paintings on the theme. Thus, paintings of the Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara can provide valuable insights into the widespread faith and worship of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva in East Asia.

The Goryeo iconography of the Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara was initially carried over into the Joseon Dynasty, before gradually changing over time. One detail that was added during the Joseon period was the kundika bottle, which can be seen here between Sudhana and Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva. Representing the Lamaist branch of Buddhism, the kundika bottle has a distinctive spout and handle, and contains a willow branch with a bird perched on it. The bird is another new detail that emerged in the Joseon period, although a bird can also be seen in at least one Goryeo painting of the Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara, which is currently housed in Daitokuji Temple in Japan. Both the kundika bottle and bird became standard features of Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara paintings during the Joseon period.

Also, whereas Goryeo paintings of the Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara tend to show Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva gazing down upon Sudhana with a mellow expression, Joseon versions usually provide a frontal view of the bodhisattva, who seems to be looking directly out at the viewer of the painting, who was likely a Buddhist worshipper. By making worshippers feel as if Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva was personally looking down upon them with compassion, Joseon depictions of the Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara emphasized the bodhisattva’s mercy for real people in need of help.

Seated on a rock amidst crashing waves, Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva faces directly forward. On the viewer’s left, Sudhana gazes up at the bodhisattva with clasped hands, below a Lamaist-style kundika bottle containing a a willow branch with a blue bird perched on it, a distinguishing detail of Joseon paintings on this theme. The figure on the lower right, also with hands clasped, is Skanda.

In a red panel at the bottom of the painting is an inscription stating that the painting was made in 1730 and listing the names of the donors and the five monks who produced the painting: Uigyeom, Jinhaeng, Haengjong, Chaein, and Seokin. During the Joseon period, many Buddhist sculptures and paintings were created by monks who were skilled artisans. As this painting demonstrates, such monks often worked in groups to produce paintings and sculptures for temples. Over time, a hierarchy of masters and disciples developed, leading to the establishment of specialized art schools.

Of the five artisans who are mentioned in the inscription, the most notable name is Uigyeom, a prominent monk painter of the late Joseon period, who was active primarily in Jeolla-do Province during the first half of the eighteenth century. Due to his outstanding reputation as a monk painter, Uigyeom accumulated a number of honorific titles, such as “Hoseon” (毫仙, “Immortal with a Brush”); “Jonsuk” (尊宿, “Esteemed Monk with Great Virtue and Skill”); and “Daejeonggyeong” (大正經, “Superb Correct Doctrine”). In addition to this painting, Uigyeom also oversaw Buddhist art projects at Unheungsa Temple in Goseong and Gapsa Temple in Gongju, and participated in the production of major Buddhist paintings in the Eungjindang Hall of both Songgwangsa Temple in Suncheon and Heungguksa Temple in Yeosu. He also produced Buddhist hanging scrolls for outdoor rituals for Cheonggoksa Temple in Jinju (1722) and Unheungsa Temple in Goseong (1730), as well as at least one Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva statue that is still extant. Today, Uigyeom’s works demonstrate the outstanding skills and versatility of monk-artists of the Joseon period, many of whom excelled across various genres and media. Two of the other monk-artists who are named—Haengjong and Chaein—are similarly credited on other paintings by Uigyeom, indicating that they were his disciples.

In addition to this painting at the National Museum of Korea, there are two other extant Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara paintings by Uigyeom: one at Heungguksa Temple in Yeosu, which was produced in 1723, and one at Unheungsa Temple in Goseong, produced in 1730. These three paintings bear a striking resemblance to one another in terms of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva’s pose and the overall composition, but there are various differences between them, such as the arrangement of the bamboo, kundika bottle, and Sudhana; the expression of an ornamental cloth; and the presence of other devotees, such as the Dragon King of the Ocean or Dragon Girl. As such, these three paintings reveal how Uigyeom creatively modified the core iconography of this popular theme over time.