Handaxes, oval-shaped stone tools with a sharp end, are a paleolithic tool designed to be grasped in the hand and used in a variety of ways. Paleolithic humans first imagined the overall shape of such handaxes and then crafted them. Handaxes have been discovered in a wide range of geographic areas, including Western Europe, the Mideast, Africa, the British Isles, the Indian Subcontinent, and East Asia. They were used from roughly 1.7 million years ago until 100,000 years in the past. The archeoanthropine who made these handaxes is believed to be Homo erectus. This handaxe was unearthed in Jeongok-ri, Yeoncheon-gun, Gyeonggi-do Province. Hallam L. Movius (1907–1987), an American archaeologist working in the early 1940s, classified paleolithic culture into handaxe culture in Europe and chopper culture in Asia. He had asserted that handaxes never existed in East Asia. However, the excavation of this handaxe in Jeongok-ri in 1978 forced a reevaluation.

"Comb-pattern pottery, a distinctive Neolithic cultural element of ancient Korea, was produced roughly 6,000 years ago. This V-shaped pottery can be divided into the mouth, body, and foot, all of which are adorned with diverse designs. Pottery from the Neolithic period is commonly decorated with geometric, plant, or animal patterns. These patterns may be incised or carved onto the bodies of the vessels. Alternatively, clay bands may be added. The symmetrical arrangement of designs in such pottery indicates an outstanding spatial organization ability by Neolithic people, a keen sense of aesthetics, and sophisticated spirituality. After the chance discovery that firing clay makes it durable, Neolithic people took advantage of this property to create pottery. The use of pottery led to great changes in prehistoric life, including allowing the storage of food, cooking, settlement, and the utilization of new plant resources. "

"This bronze ritual object vividly depicts scenes of farming during the Bronze Age. The new economics of agriculture based on rice farming that emerged on the Korean Peninsula around the fifteenth century BCE resulted in a major social shift. This object excavated from the Daejeon area provides precious illustrations of the agricultural life of the Bronze Age, when there were no written form of recording. A ring is attached to one side along with an engraving of two birds, each seated on a tree branch. The other side features a naked man with a feather on his head cultivating a field with a hand plow above a person holding a hoe and a third figure on the left placing grain in a jar. These figures depict the agricultural cycle from plowing in the spring to harvesting in the fall. However, the nude figure cultivating the field has been interpreted to mean that this object also served as an object in a ritual praying for an abundant harvest. It is presumed to have been produced when Korean-type bronze dagger culture began to develop around the fifth to fourth centuries BCE. "

The ancient tombs excavated in Daho-ri, Changwon in Gyeongsangnam-do Province are classified as early wooden coffin burials, providing new information on the formation of ancient kingdoms in Korea. The most distinctive feature of the Daho-ri wooden coffin tombs is a pit called a yogaeng (腰坑, literally, “waist-pit”) made underneath the coffin in the center bottom of each tomb. Such type of a pit was first discovered in Daho-ri tombs. Inside the pit was a basket packed with multiple relics, including weapons such as Korean-type bronze daggers with lacquered sheaths, iron swords, bronze and iron socketed spearheads, and arrows; iron agricultural tools, including wooden hand plows and axes; personal accessories such as Chinese mirrors, belt hooks, and beads; wooden lacquerware; fans; horse bells; wuzhu coins; and brushes. The excavation of Chinese mirrors and wuzhu coins indicates that the Daho-ri tombs were built during the late first century BCE. According to historical records, the Byeonhan Confederacy controlled a number of iron mines, possessed considerable iron manufacturing technology, and supplied iron to Nangnang and Japan. They also used iron as currency. At the time, the Byeonhan ruling class accumulated wealth by producing, controlling, and trading in iron, which allowed its members to sustain and expand their power. The ancient tombs in Daho-ri belonged to such members of the ruling class of Byeonhan society. The occupant of Tomb No. 1, in which the most diverse and greatest number of relics were found, appears to have been a ruler of Byeonhan.

"The southern mound of Tomb No. 140 in Noseo-dong, Gyeongju came to be called Houchong Tomb after a bronze bowl known as “hou” (壺衧), a type of which related to the Goguryeo Kingdom, was excavated there. This piece consists of a hemispherical body and a shallow dome-shaped lid. On the bottom of the exterior bottom is inscribed in relief a “#” symbol and an inscription reading “Eulmyonyeon gukgangsang Gwanggaetojihotaewang housip” (乙卯年國罡上廣開土地好太王壺杅十). “Gwanggaetojihotaewang” (廣開土地好太王) in the inscription refers to a posthumous honorific name given to King Gwanggaeto to extol his achievements in expanding the territory of the Goguryeo Kingdom. “Gukgangsang” (國罡上) is the name of the site where the tomb of King Gwanggaeto is located. “Eulmyonyeon” (乙卯年) refers to 415, three years after King Gwanggaeto’s death in 412, which implies that this bowl was produced in memory of the king. “Housip” (壺杅十) may mean either ten hou bowls or the tenth hou bowl, suggesting that at least ten such bowls were produced, but there are many other assumptions related to this meaning. The meaning of the “#” symbol in the upper center has not been identified. This bronze bowl found to the right side of the head of the interred body offers significant information on the history of the Goguryeo and Silla Kingdoms. According to records, King Gwanggaeto sent an army of fifty thousand soldiers to Silla at the request of its King Naemul in order to protect Silla from a threat from a neighboring nation. Could it be possible that this bowl was given to a Silla envoy who participated in the memorial ceremony for King Gwanggaeto in 415 and was kept by his descendants and buried in this tomb?"

"The Tomb of King Muryeong in Gongju was excavated in 1971. This tomb and the approximately 4,600 items excavated from it are considered a treasury of Baekje culture. As the sole royal tomb of the Three Kingdoms Period with an epitaph and the occupant known, it provides critical references for the study of ancient tombs in Northeast Asia. The burial systems and excavated relics of the Tomb of King Muryeong reflect the internationality of the Baekje Kingdom. Chinese ceramics, animal-shaped tomb guardians, a burial-plot purchase contract, and wooden coffins made of Japanese pine evidence the early-sixth-century cultural network linking the Southern Dynasty of China, the Baekje Kingdom, and Japan. Two pairs of overlapping golden diadem ornaments were found where the heads of the king and queen rested. According to Jiu Tangshu (舊唐書, Old Official History of the Tang Dynasty), “[Baekje’s] king’s crown was made from black silk and decorated with gold flowers.” These gold crown ornaments from the Tomb of King Muryeong are presumed to be the gold flowers mentioned in the historical records on Baekje. The queen’s crown ornaments are made from thin gold plates decorated in an openwork design. They show symmetrical decorations and have no spangles attached, unlike those of the king. The openwork design consists of a flower vase in the center with lotus blooms and scrolls below and above it, respectively, all of which reflect the world view in Buddhism. Since no similar examples have been found in other regions, these ornaments are believed to demonstrate the distinctive culture of Baekje Kingdom. "

This set of armor and helmet were excavated from Tomb No. 32, a royal tomb-level burial of the Daegaya polity in Jisan-dong, Goryeong-gun, Gyeongsangbuk-do Province. The armor consists of iron plates nailed into a torso form suited to a human body. The helmet resembles a peach pit with a long iron plate attached to the rear to protect the neck. Besides this set of armor and helmet, a separate piece of armor designed for the shoulders was unearthed. Such armor and helmets were distinctive of the Daegaya polity. Armor and helmets began to be produced there in the fifth century CE, and this tradition was continued from the Geumgwan Gaya polity of the third and fourth centuries. The effectiveness of Gaya armor at protecting soldiers led it to be exported to the Japanese Archipelago. This armor clearly demonstrates the remarkable iron manufacturing and production techniques of Daegaya.

This gold crown and belt were excavated from Hwangnamdaechong Tomb, a fifth-century royal tomb of the Silla Kingdom in Gyeongju. This simple gold crown is adorned with vertical decorations in the shape of tree branch and an antler, and it symbolizes the identity and worldview of the ruler of Silla in the fourth and fifth centuries, known as the Maripgan (great chief). Along with such gold crowns, gold belts were also used to represent the sacred authority of the Maripgan. Decorations made of precious metal in the shapes of a fish, knife, and comma-shaped jades were suspended from the belt featured here. These decorations denote the daily life of the Maripgan. In ancient East Asia, a crown was an emblem of social status and each country maintained its characteristic version. The crowns of the Silla Kingdom, in particular, stand out for their use of a tree as a symbol of sovereign power.

This marble pagoda was created in 1348 during the Goryeo Dynasty. It was originally erected at Gyeongcheonsa Temple in Kaesong, North Korea, 60 kilometers away from its current location. Gyeongcheonsa Temple was closely associated with the Goryeo royal family and memorial ceremonies were held there on the death anniversaries of its members. According to the inscription engraved on the body under the first-story roof, this pagoda was erected under the patronage of those who were politically tied to the imperial family of the Yuan Dynasty in China. The pagoda shows elaborate architectural elements that recall a wooden structure, and each story is decorated with carvings of Buddhas. The three lower tiers of the pagoda consist of layers of protruding planes, reflecting the form of Mongolian and Tibetan pagodas popular during the Yuan Dynasty. The fourth to tenth tiers are comprised of square planes following the Korean stone pagoda tradition. Since such structures are unknown in China, this pagoda is believed to have been an innovation that took place in Goryeo as it embraced the influence of the popular pagoda styles of the time in East Asia. About 120 years after the creation of this pagoda, the Joseon court erected a pagoda similar in terms of form and materials at Wongaksa Temple in Seoul.

This sculpture, one of the oldest iron Buddha sculptures surviving in Korea, was enshrined at Bowonsa Temple in Seosan, Chungcheongnam-do Province. Although cast in iron, this Buddha provides a sense of realism similar to that of the stone sculpture of the main Buddha at Seokguram Grotto. The drapery folds in the left arm are depicted even more elegantly than those of the Seokguram Buddha. Full-scale iron Buddhist sculptures were produced during a relatively brief period of Korean history from the late Unified Silla period to the early Goryeo period when copper for bronze casting was in short supply. Despite the multiple drawbacks of iron, the production of iron Buddha sculptures rivaling the Seokguram Buddha demonstrates Unified Silla’s advanced casting technologies.

Tripitakas consist of Buddhist scriptures, monastic codes of conduct, and writings by Buddhist monks. They are referred to as a “medieval encyclopedia” since they go beyond Buddhist scripture to present a wide array of the knowledge of the time. Several countries in East Asia created Tripitakas in their own languages during the medieval era. Among them, the Tripitaka of the Goryeo Kingdom (the Tripitaka Koreana) is considered the foremost example for its substantial content and elaborate engraving on woodblocks. In 1011, the Goryeo court produced the First Tripitaka Koreana as an attempt to help repel an invasion by the Khitans using the power of Buddha. However, this edition was burned to cinders in 1232 during the Mongol Invasions of Korea. Choe Yi, one of the de facto rulers of the time, established the Tripitaka Bureau as part of efforts to repel the Mongols and produced a new edition after sixteen years of dedicated efforts that were launched in 1236. This edition is known as the Second Tripitaka Koreana or Eighty Thousand Tripitaka. This Nirvana Scripture printed using the woodblocks of Eighty Thousand Tripitaka (currently housed at Haeinsa Temple in Hapcheon) describes the Buddha’s assumption to nirvana. It serves as evidence of both the achievements of Goryeo Buddhism and the printing culture of the time.

This metal movable type in Hangeul was used for printing the vernacular explications in a 1461 version of the Buddhist scripture Shurangama Sutra (The Sutra of the Heroic One). They provided Korean translations of this text written in Chinese characters to explain the ascetic practices followed by bodhisattvas to become Buddhas. Official writing used Chinese characters during the Joseon Dynasty, but the court also produced and used metal type in Hangeul. This book was the first Buddhist scripture translated into the Korean alphabet. As the oldest existing metal movable type in Hangeul, these type pieces are presumed to have been created between 1455 and 1461. As the inheritor of the metal movable type printing technology invented during the Goryeo Dynasty, the Joseon Dynasty produced sets of metal movable type on several occasions and published a range of books. This government publication is a characteristic of the unique printing culture of Joseon Dynasty.

These woodblocks were produced to print Territorial Map of the Great East (Daedong yeojido) by the Joseon cartographer Kim Jeong-ho. They are carved with detailed information, including mountain ranges, rivers, villages, traffic routes, communication facilities, and military facilities. Each woodblock measures roughly 43 centimeters in width by 32 centimeters in length and provides geographic information on an area spanning roughly 47 kilometers north-south and 63 kilometers east-west. When sheets printed from all sixty woodblocks are assembled, a large-scale map of the entire country roughly 6.7 meters long and 3.8 meters wide is completed. These woodblocks show indications that Kim Jeong-ho continued to edit and revise his Territorial Map of the Great East even after its initial publication.

Uigwe, or royal protocols, are illustrated documents describing the full process of preparing, executing, and performing the major state rites and ceremonies of the Joseon royal court, including weddings, funerals, and enthronement ceremonies. Many uigwe were housed at the Oegyujanggak (the royal library annex) in Ganghwado Island, but most of these were destroyed in a fire during the invasion of Ganghwado by a French fleet in 1866. When the French forces retreated from the island, they took with them 297 volumes of uigwe, all of which had been returned to Korea in 2011. Each volume of the uigwe from the Oegyujanggak consists of texts elaborately written on high-quality paper, illustrations painted using natural pigments, and a cover made from silk. Since most uigwe were produced for kings’ royal viewing, they feature the highest level of quality and artistic dignity possible at the time. Moreover, as a majority of these are the sole remaining copies either in Korea or abroad, they are considered irreplaceable. Uigwe are a form of recorded heritage unique to Korea that is not found in other countries with the same Confucian cultures, particularly China, Japan, and Vietnam.

In an effort to promote independence and enhance the nation’s prosperity and military capabilities, King Gojong held a coronation ceremony in October 1897 at Hwangudan Altar elevating himself as Emperor Gojong and proclaiming the Korean Empire. As emperor, Gojong strove to solidify the nation’s status as a fully independent country rather than a vassal of China. Accordingly, Gojong used terms including chikseo (imperial rescript), pyeha (his imperial highness), jim (I, the emperor), and manse (hail to the emperor) whose use was restricted to emperors. He also wore a yellow robe with dragon decoration and produced state seals (guksae) and royal seals (eobo) that were reserved for emperors. After the proclamation of the Korean Empire in 1897, the handle of the newly produced imperial seals, including this example, was changed from a turtle to a dragon, symbolizing an emperor. The title of the seals also changed from “in” (印, seal) to “bo” (寶, treasure).

Before the creation of Korean alphabet, known as Hangeul, Chinese characters were used in Korea for documentation and to convey messages. Calligraphy emphasizing the beauty of the forms of Chinese characters developed from early on. During the Unified Silla period, Kim Saeng (711–?) achieved international fame as a noted calligrapher. Kim Saeng not only mastered the styles of famous Chinese calligraphers such as Wang Xizhi (307–365) and Yan Zhenqing (709–785), but developed a robust and brisk calligraphic style of his own. This stele for Master Nanggong from Taejasa Temple was erected during the reign of King Gwangjong of the Goryeo Dynasty and engraved with a collection of Kim Saeng’s calligraphy. Since almost no writings by Kim Saeng survive, this stele is an invaluable example preserving the calligraphy of this master known as the “Wang Xizhi of Silla” or one of the Four Divine Calligraphers. The side of this stele is carved with an inscription written by Bak Nul (1448–1528), a literati of the mid-Joseon period, in classic regular script. In his inscription, Bak wrote about his impressions on the rediscovery of this stele. This stele demonstrates the timeless values of arts.

Sutra copying is a religious act of transcribing the sermons of the Buddha as well as a method for practicing asceticism. Hand-copied scriptures were written in silver and gold on high-quality paper and splendidly ornamented since they contain the teachings of the Buddha. They also presented scenes of the Buddha preaching his sermons and guardian deities protecting the Buddhist Law in graceful yet powerful line drawings. The remaining spaces were filled with diverse patterns. The oldest surviving hand-copied sutra in Korea was produced during the Unified Silla period. The tradition of copying Buddhist scriptures continued throughout the Goryeo and Joseon periods. In particular, when Buddhism was recognized as the state religion during the Goryeo Dynasty, extensive state-led sutra copying projects were carried out, unlike the practices in China and Japan at the time. Hand-copied sutras embodied various wishes for both national peace and prosperity and personal pursuits. Moreover, byeonsangdo (illustrations of Buddhist scriptures) reflected the painting styles that changed over time and the dignified aesthetic sense of the sutra-copying masters. These hand-copied sutras elaborately decorated in gold and silver show the spirit of Koreans of the past who transformed the lofty and esoteric Buddhist world into an art form.

This box was used during the Joseon Dynasty to store clothes such as official robes. The lid of the chest is decorated with a lotus scroll inlaid in mother-of-pearl. From ancient times, brilliant shell was used as a valued decoration. This clothing box encapsulates the tradition of the Goryeo Dynasty alongside innovations from the Joseon era. The composition follows the Goryeo tradition, but techniques newly developed during the Joseon period were employed. These include kkeuneumjil technique, which involves cutting mother-of-pearl with a knife and forming curved patterns with cut mother-of-pearl, as well as tabalbeop, a technique of hammering large mother-of-pearl designs and gluing the broken pieces back into the designs and creating cracked surfaces. These diverse techniques resulted in the development of pictorial mother-of-pearl designs that differed from the delicate aesthetics of Goryeo crafts. Mother-of-pearl art retrogressed in East Asia after the collapse of the Tang Dynasty. In China, the diaoqi technique of carving into thick coatings of lacquer developed, while in Japan the makie technique of sprinkling gold or silver powder over lacquer emerged. In Korea, lacquerware with mother-of-pearl inlay was practiced throughout the Goryeo period and well into Joseon Dynasty. This box symbolizes the beauty of Korean mother-of-pearl lacquerware traditions that were refined over centuries while relying on natural materials.

The marathoner Son Gi-jeong (1912–2002) won a gold medal and set a world record in the marathon at the eleventh Olympic Games in Berlin in 1936. The winner of this marathon was supposed to have been awarded a bronze Greek helmet. However, the International Olympic Committee refused to present Son with the helmet since it would have violated its rules on amateurism. Instead, it was housed in a museum in Berlin for fifty years. In 1986, it was finally presented to Son at an event celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Berlin Olympics. In the following year, it was designated by the Korean government as a Treasure. Son Gi-jeong donated the helmet to the nation, stating that “This helmet is not mine, it belongs to all people of my country.” This helmet was unearthed in the excavations of the sites of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia that have been conducted since 1875. Such helmets in the Corinthian style were produced particularly in the Corinth region from the seventh century BCE. The section below the crown is recessed inwards while the neck flares outward.

These two stone sculptures were produced by Kim Ji-seong in 719 during the Unified Silla period. They are important examples that include information on the commissioner and the purpose and date of production. The bodies of these stone sculptures of Maitreya Bodhisattva and Amitabha Buddha, which were created for the patron’s deceased mother and father, reveal an abundant sense of volume. They have a strong presence, and the bodily curves are remarkably sculpted. Such physical depictions are characteristic of the early eighth-century Buddhist sculptures of the Unified Silla Kingdom, which embraced Chinese Tang sculptural styles influenced by Gupta period Indian sculpture while adding unique local traits. Korean Buddhist sculptures were often made from hard granite, unlike their Chinese and Japanese counterparts.

This sculpture sits in the contemplative pose with the right leg perched on the left knee and the right hand resting against the cheek. The substantial proportion made up by pensive Bodhisattva images among the surviving Buddhist sculpture from the Three Kingdoms Period indicate their popularity in Korea at the time. Moreover, pensive Bodhisattvas were considered important enough to enshrine as the principal image in a Buddhist hall. This esteem for pensive Bodhisattvas is presumed to have been influenced by how the posture embodies the life and thoughts of Sakyamuni Buddha. Also, the aesthetic beauty of the peaceful smile and body modeling must have contributed as well. Considering the simplicity of the body, three-dimensionality of its drapery folds, and technical difficulty of casting a sculpture of this size 1,400 years ago, this pensive Bodhisattva can be considered a masterpiece of not simply the Three Kingdoms Period, but of Korean sculpture overall.

Originally, kundika were portable water bottles carried by Indian monks as part of their ascetic traditions. Their use changed slightly in Korea where they also served to hold clean water during Buddhist rituals. This kundika with a design of waterfront scenery demonstrates the remarkable metalworking techniques evident during the Goryeo Dynasty. The metal inlaying technique was first developed in the Three Kingdoms Period and flourished in the Goryeo period. In this bottle, designs of willow trees, reeds, ducks, wild geese, and the people in a boat are carved onto the surface and then thin silver threads were inlaid into the cavities. The free and pictorial depictions using fine silver threads recall the brushstrokes in a painting, demonstrating the superb metal crafting of the era.

"The Goryeo Dynasty was the second country to produce celadon after its discovery in China. Even a connoisseur from China, the nation where it was predominantly produced, mentioned the excellence of Goryeo celadon. In his Xiuzhongjin (Brocade in the Sleeve), Taiping Laoren of the Southern Song Dynasty described bisaek (jade-green) Goryeo celadon as the best in the world. This incense burner is a masterpiece of Goryeo celadon for its exceptional jade-green color, decorativeness, and formative beauty. This incense burner consists of a lid, body, and support. The lid is adorned with an openwork seven treasures design, with the overlapping portions showing small dots inlaid with white clay. The body takes the form of a flower by attaching layers of petals to the cylindrical inner body. Three rabbit-shaped feet on the support hold up the incense burner. The eyes of the rabbits are painted with black iron pigment, adding a sense of liveliness. This incense burner features a variety of the decoration techniques available to a master potter of the Goryeo Dynasty, including incising, carving in or mold-impressing for relief, openwork, inlaying, modeling after natural forms, iron-brown underglaze, and paste-on-paste. It also demonstrates a harmony between technical proficiency and a restrained sense of aesthetics. "

This type of bottle is known as a turtle-shaped bottle for its round but flattened body and protruding neck. The novel design and unusual colors reflect the liveliness and dynamism of the early Joseon period. It is presumed to have been used as portable container for alcohol or water with a string tied to its neck. The surface of the bottle is covered with white slip, through which designs are carved with a sharp tool like a bamboo knife. The remaining areas beyond the designs are scraped away so that the dark color of the body clay is exposed and highlight the color contrast. This decoration technique common to buncheong ware is called sgraffito, or bakji in Korean. In the case of this particular bottle, a pigment high in iron was added to the scraped surface to make the visual impact of the white peony design against a black background more apparent. This bottle is decorated with peony designs on its back. Here, peonies symbolizing wealth and honor are reinterpreted in the simple distinctive buncheong style. This turtle-shaped bottle is important in East Asian ceramic history for its form, decoration, and design.

"This white porcelain jar is also known as moon jar, for it resembles a large full moon. The jar captures the quintessence of the white porcelain culture of the late Joseon period. Moon jars were produced at the official court kilns in Gwangju, Gyeonggi-do Province, particularly the kilns in Geumsa-ri, around the later seventeenth and the early eighteenth centuries. Because of its bulk and intended height of forty centimeters, this jar was made from two stacked hemispherical sections. Traces of the joints at the equator of the jar are visible. The bilateral symmetry is imperfect and the shape is slightly distorted. This round jar with pure white hue is considered to be the quintessence of the beauty of Joseon white porcelain. Moon jars have been unearthed recently from the sites at the Jongmyo Royal Ancestral Shrine and the Gungisi Office in charge of the production of weaponry. Accordingly, they are presumed to have been used as storage containers at the royal court and central government bureaus. These white porcelain jars most successfully express unique Joseon aesthetics and sentiments with no contemporary counterparts in China and Japan. "

This painting depicts Fuxi and Nüwa, a god and goddess involved in the Chinese creation myth. Nüwa on the left and Fuxi on the right have the upper bodies of a human but the lower bodies of a serpent. The goddess holds a compass while the god holds a bent ruler. In the traditional Chinese cosmology, a compass symbolizes the circular heaven and a ruler represents the square earth. The Turpan region was introduced to Chinese Han culture early in its history. Many burial objects found in this region are made of Chinese materials and display Chinese characteristics. The shading technique used in depicting the faces and hands of Fuxi and Nüwa was transmitted from the West, while the geometric depiction of the sun and moon was characteristic of Central Asia. Among the extant paintings of Fuxi and Nüwa from the Turpan area, this painting is in unusually good condition, which makes it a notable work of art.

The Gandhara region covers the Peshawar basin, Swat, and Taxila in present-day Pakistan and the Kabul basin and Jalalabad in present-day Afghanistan. The region serves as a crucial hub linking West, South, and Central Asia. Buddhist sculpture from this region reflects influences from several cultures, including India, Hellenism, Rome, and Parthia. The art that thrived in this region from the first to the fifth century is referred to as “Gandharan art.” Gandhara has great historical significance in that it is credited along with the Mathura region with producing the first representations of Buddhist deities in human form. This sculpture demonstrates the influence of Hellenistic style in Gandharan Buddhist sculpture. The facial features, hair, drapery folds, and ornaments are all depicted in a realistic and three-dimensional manner. The Bodhisattva presented in this sculpture originally referred to Śākyamuni Buddha before attaining enlightenment. However, with the advent of Mahayana Buddhism, a Bodhisattva came to mean a deity working to save sentient beings while seeking its own enlightenment.

This ewer was produced at the Jingdezhen kilns in China. The snow-white porcelain surface is decorated with cobalt blue underglaze. The ewer has a body in the shape of a swollen body, a wide mouth, slender neck, and ornate handle. The overall body is adorned from top to bottom with diverse designs, including grass, lotus flowers, scrollwork, and fruit. These designs were exquisitely painted using a brush soaked in cobalt blue pigment before being coated with transparent glaze. Once fired, the white tone of the porcelain and blue designs are highlighted. The majority of such blue-and-white porcelain was created at the Jingdezhen kilns during the Yuan Dynasty. It continued to be produced for export during the Ming and Qing periods and was highly esteemed by both Asians and Europeans. According to historical records, Yi Bang-won (1347–1422), later King Taejong of the Joseon Dynasty, drank alcohol from a cup with cobalt blue decoration when he held a Goryeo government post. This indicates that Chinese blue-and-white porcelain was being imported to Korea by at least at the end of the Goryeo period.

This painting album illustrates Genji Monogatari (The Tale of Genji), the great classic of Japanese literature. Genji Monogatari explores the aristocratic society of the Heian period through the love affairs, political ambitions, and power struggles of Hikuru Genji, the male protagonist of the story. Each leaf of this painting album consists of quotes from the novel with a corresponding illustration. The illustrations depict the landscapes and clothing in a detailed manner. All of the figures show bushy eyebrows dark as charcoal and each eye depicted only with a dot. The technique of drawing such facial features is referred to as hikime kagibana (literally, slash eyes and hooked nose), which can make faces seem expressionless but helps viewers develop empathy for the figures. Besides hikime kagibana, the fukinuki yatai technique was used, rendering buildings without a roof or ceiling but with the pillars and sliding doors visible. It is useful for depicting scenes from the novel taking place inside a residential structure. This painting album portrays the splendid and elegant court culture of the Heian period of Japan and embodies the Japanese painting tradition of appreciating literature through illustrations.