Painted by No Yeong in 1307, Amitabha Buddha with Eight Great Bodhisattvas and Goryeo’s King Taejo Worshipping Dharmôdgata Bodhisattva have special importance because of their inscriptions, which document their production date, artist, and patrons. Moreover, both works demonstrate the faith in Geumgangsan Mountain as a sacred Buddhist site during the Goryeo period. The two paintings are delicately rendered in lines of gold paint on the front and back of a single wooden panel, measuring 22.5 centimeters in height and 13 centimeters in width. There are two prongs extending out from the bottom of the panel, suggesting that it was once inserted into a base of some kind.

The main inscription is written on the bottom of the panel between the prongs, with additional details in a small box next to the raised right hand of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva, the lower figure in Goryeo’s King Taejo Worshipping Dharmôdgata Bodhisattva. The inscription states that the paintings were made in the eighth month of 1307 by monk painter No Yeong, commissioned by □ Deuk, □ Hye, Bak Iksong, Jeon Geung, Shin Ryang, and Seong Gan.

The first painting, on the front side of the panel, shows Amitabha Buddha sitting above the Eight Great Bodhisattvas. On the opposite side, Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva is seated at the bottom, holding a round jewel and surrounded on both sides by three figures paying their respects, including the monk painter No Yeong. Moving upwards, above the clouds that surround Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva, there is a landscape of rugged mountain peaks and a group of bodhisattvas with several adherents. On a cliff between the peaks, a small figure is shown bowing to worship the enlarged figure of Dharmôdgata Bodhisattva on the right. The Chinese characters “太祖” (“Taejo”) are written next to the bowing person, indicating that he is Wang Geon (877–943), who became King Taejo, founder of the Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392).

According to the section “Jeongyangsa Temple of Hoeyang” in Survey of the Geography of Korea (東國輿地勝覽), when Goryeo’s King Taejo climbed Geumgangsan Mountain, Dharmôdgata Bodhisattva appeared on a rock, emitting radiance. After King Taejo and his subjects paid their respects to the bodhisattva, he founded Jeongyangsa Temple. Thus, this painting seems to depict the encounter between King Taejo and Dharmôdgata Bodhisattva, who is clearly emitting light. In such case, the mountain peaks on the left must represent Geumgangsan Mountain, which would make this painting the oldest extant depiction of this sacred site. As described in the “Residence of the Bodhisattvas” chapter in the Avatamsaka Sutra (華嚴經), Geumgangsan Mountain was believed to be the dwelling place of Dharmôdgata Bodhisattva:

“In the middle of the sea is Geumgangsan Mountain, where a congregation of bodhisattvas has resided from antiquity. Currently, Dharmôdgata Bodhisattva dwells in its midst, along with 1200 bodhisattvas, teaching the Dharma.”

The belief that the mythical Geumgangsan Mountain mentioned in the Avatamsaka Sutra corresponds to an actual mountain in Korea—i.e., present-day Geumgangsan or Mt. Kumgang in North Korea—is thought to have emerged in the late Goryeo period. In the early Goryeo period, the mountain now known as Geumgangsan was called Gaegolsan or Pungaksan. But by the late Goryeo period, it was being called either Geumgangsan or Gidalsan, likely in reference to the Geumgangsan mentioned in the Avatamsaka Sutra. In addition, records left by late Goryeo officials such as Choe Ja (1188–1260) and Min Ji (1248–1326) describe the real Geumgangsan Mountain in Korea as the residence of Dharmôdgata Bodhisattva. If this timeline is accurate, then the anecdote about Goryeo’s King Taejo seeing Dharmôdgata Bodhisattva on “Geumgangsan” was likely invented by later generations. In any case, these records show the reverence and significance of the real Geumgangsan Mountain as a sacred site for Buddhists.

Interestingly, Goryeo’s King Taejo is not the only historical figure who is said to have encountered Dharmôdgata Bodhisattva at Geumgangsan Mountain. Similar stories were also recorded about King Taejo and King Sejo, the first and seventh rulers of the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910). This narrative was likely part of those kings’ efforts to establish the legitimacy of the new dynasty (which was founded by a coup) or to gain religious support for their reign. Thus, for reasons both political and religious, the desire to sanctify Geumgangsan Mountain seems to have increased around the time of the establishment of the Joseon Dynasty.

Beyond its status as a supposed dwelling place for bodhisattvas, Geumgangsan Mountain came to be revered as a sacred site for all Buddhists. According to Gwon Geun (1352–1409), a scholar of the late Goryeo and early Joseon period, Buddhists from all parts of Asia aspired to visit Geumgangsan Mountain, and those who could not make the journey would instead hang and worship a painting of the mountain in their home. Gwon Geun also reported that climbing Geumgangsan Mountain three times would help one avoid the “Three Evil Destinies” after death. Similarly, Choe Hae (1287–1340), a literatus of the late Goryeo period, wrote that anyone who saw Geumgangsan Mountain would be saved from the evil destinies. Thus, Geumgangsan Mountain was venerated not only as the physical representation of the bodhisattva’s dwelling place as mentioned in Buddhist scriptures, but also as place of divine power associated with contemporaneous beliefs of the afterlife.

Geumgangsan Mountain was recognized as a sacred site not only in the Goryeo Dynasty, but also in China’s Yuan Dynasty, or the Mongol Empire. Records state that the Taiding Emperor of Yuan (r. 1323–1328, temple name Jinzong) ordered an Indian monk named Jigong (d. 1363) to visit Goryeo and make incense offerings at Geumgangsan Mountain. In addition, Empress Gi, who was born in Goryeo and became the empress-consort of Yuan’s Emperor Shun (r. 1333–1368), initiated major Buddhist projects at Jangansa Temple in Geumgangsan Mountain on behalf of the emperor and imperial princes. For example, she reportedly sent craftspeople and gold to repair and rebuild the temple.

Reflecting the sanctity of Geumgangsan in the late Goryeo period, many small statues have been discovered on the mountain, including Amitabha Buddha triads and statues of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva and Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva. In particular, two gilt-bronze Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva statues, which are said to have been excavated from Geumgangsan Mountain (Jangyang-myeon, Hoeyang-gun, Gangwon-do Province), feature large flower-shaped earrings and resplendent jewelry that extends down their bodies. Many of the small Buddhist statues found around Geumgangsan Mountain show the strong influence of Lamaist Buddhist sculpture, a style that was popular with the Yuan court in China.

Thus, the faith in Geumgangsan Mountain was shared by many people from the royal court to the commoners across a wide region, spanning from the Goryeo Dynasty to the Yuan Dynasty in China. Even Yi Seonggye (1335–1408) enshrined sarira reliquaries on Birobong Peak of Geumgangsan Mountain just before establishing the Joseon Dynasty in 1390 and 1391. Buddhist statues found in the rugged cliffs of Geumgangsan Mountain offer a fascinating glimpse into the Buddhist faith and practices of the Goryeo Dynasty.
Unfortunately, however, most such statues remain in North Korea, and the only available information about temples in Geumgangsan Mountain comes from archival materials from the Japanese colonial period. At present, it is very difficult for anyone in South Korea to conduct detailed research into religious practices related to Geumgangsan Mountain. Hopefully, the future will bring more in-depth research and cultural exchange between North and South Korea so that we can better understand the significance of Geumgangsan Mountain as a sacred Buddhist site during the Goryeo period.