Buddhist sculptures from the Joseon Dynasty are typically divided into two periods (i.e., early and late), with the Imjin War (series of Japanese invasions of Korea, 1592–1598) serving as the demarcation point. Among works of the early period, there are many outstanding fifteenth-century sculptures with documented production dates, demonstrating the continuance of the sculptural traditions of the preceding Goryeo Dynasty. By comparison, however, relatively few sculptures from the sixteenth century with a known production date have survived. Moving into the late period, starting around the early seventeenth century, most Buddhist sculptures were produced by monk-sculptors from temples. A large number of statues with provincial and standardized forms were produced nationwide, accompanied by abundant records.

This article introduces one of the few examples of a sixteenth-century Joseon Buddhist sculpture with a confirmed production date: a stone Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva with an inscription that reads “tenth year of Zhengde,” referring to the Zhengde Emperor of China’s Ming Dynasty, who reigned from 1505 to 1521. Produced in 1515, during the reign of King Jungjong of the Joseon Dynasty, this stone bodhisattva is not only a precious artwork, but also an invaluable artifact in terms of historical documentation.

This Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva statue, including the pedestal, was carved from a single stone. The pedestal has a rough, uneven surface, making it look like the figure is seated on a natural rock platform. Red pigment was also applied to the pedestal, while the figure was gilded with a layer of gold paint. The bodhisattva wears earrings, a hood on the head, and an outer robe draped over an undergarment, while holding a round jewel in the left hand. The overall form is round and lacks extensive three-dimensionality, which are typical stylistic features of Buddhist sculptures from the Joseon Dynasty.

The most important detail of this statue is the inscription about its production, which is engraved in eight lines and forty-nine characters on the back of the pedestal.

The inscription reads as follows (“■” denotes illegible characters):

“In the third month of the tenth year of Zhengde (i.e., 1515), statues of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva and Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva were created. Sponsored by Kim Sunson and his wife Sundae, and Kim Gwicheon and his wife Songhwa. These statues were made by the court painters Jeolhak, Sanin, and Sin■. They were assisted by the monks Jiil, Beopjun, and In■.”

“正德十年乙亥三月/ 造成觀音地藏施/ 金順孫兩主順大保/
金貴千兩主宋和兩主/ 畵員節 學山人信■/ 助緣比丘 智日/ 法俊/ 仁■”

This inscription reveals that this statue was originally paired with an accompanying statue of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva. It was commissioned by two couples and produced by court painters named Jeolhak, Sanin, and Sin■, who are believed to be monk artisans, with three other monks as assistants.

In Sanskrit, “Ksitigarbha” refers to the all-encompassing nurturing capacity of the Earth, which bestows life and subsistence to all beings. According to Buddhist scripture, Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva deferred his own ascension into a Buddha and vowed to work for the enlightenment of all sentient beings for 5.67 billion years between Sakyamuni Buddha’s nirvana and the arrival of Maitreya Buddha, a time in which there is no Buddha.

Buddhists of China’s Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–906) dynasties believed that the current age was the third and final period of the gradual degeneration of the Buddha’s teachings. This concept aligned with faith in Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva, which became prominent in the period. Over time, this faith merged with beliefs in the Ten Kings of the Underworld, who are said to govern the afterlife, such that Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva came to be seen as the leader of the afterlife who could save sentient beings who had fallen into hell. As such, Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva was firmly established as a major deity of worship in popular Buddhist faith, alongside Amitabha Buddha, Bhaisajyaguru Buddha, and Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva.

The faith in Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva was initially supported by several key sutras that were translated into Chinese, such as Sutra on the Divination of the Effect of Good and Evil Actions (占察善惡業報經), translated during the Sui Dynasty (581–617); Scripture on Ksitigarbha and the Ten Wheels in the Great Mahayana Compendium (大乘大集地藏十輪經), translated by Monk Xuanzang of the Tang Dynasty in 651; and Sutra on the Past Vows of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva (地藏菩薩本願經, two-volume edition), translated by Śikṣānanda in the seventh century of the Tang Dynasty.

In Korea, faith in Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva was introduced as early as the seventh century of the Three Kingdoms period, when divination assemblies were held based on the Sutra on the Divination of the Effect of Good and Evil Actions. By the eighth century of the Unified Silla period, faith in Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva and Maitreya Bodhisattva were being practiced together, led primarily by Monk Jinpyo. In this period, Xuanzang’s translation of Scripture on Ksitigarbha and the Ten Wheels in the Great Mahayana Compendium was introduced, and the faith in Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva began emphasizing precepts and repentance, focusing especially on praying for the repose of the deceased.

In contrast, during the ensuing Goryeo Dynasty, many statues of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva were produced with the intention not only of praying to guide the spirits of the deceased to the Pure Land, but also to heal the illnesses of the living. Then in the early Joseon period, when this stone Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva was made, Sutra on the Past Vows of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva (three-volume edition translated by Monk Fadeng of the Ming Dynasty) was circulated. According to one record, in the fifteenth century, the Joseon royal court printed this sutra and produced statues of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva to help guide the deceased to the Pure Land.

In Sutra on the Past Vows of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattvai, which contains thirteen chapters, Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva appears in the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods, located at the top of Mt. Sumeru, a sacred mountain in Buddhist cosmology. The sutra emphasizes the merit of making statues of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva, stating that those who produce, worship, and make offerings to such statues will be reborn in the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods and saved from falling into the realms of suffering. The sutra also promises many worldly benefits for those who have faith in Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva, such as peace in their households, fulfilled wishes, prosperity, and freedom from illness and disaster. Thus, while faith in Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva is often associated with salvation in the afterlife and the alleviation of suffering in hell, it is also believed to improve the well-being of individuals in this world, much like the faith in Bhaisajyaguru Buddha (Medicine Buddha) and Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva.

The most notable iconographical feature of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva statues is the shaven head, akin to a monk, which clearly sets them apart from other bodhisattva images. In some cases, Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva is depicted holding a staff or a jewel. Korean statues of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva, particularly those produced in the Goryeo period, often take the form of a monastic figure holding a jewel and a staff.

During the early Joseon period, the traditional iconography of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva from the Goryeo period was maintained. This continuation is confirmed in the patronage records of the Sutra on the Past Vows of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva (housed at Leeum Museum of Art), published between 1447 and 1450 during the reign of King Sejong, which states, “Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva’s magical power and the jewel in the palm of his hand shine brightly, illuminating all the hells and enabling all beings to attain Buddhahood, and the subtle sound of his six-ringed staff reaches the Avici Hell and ushers all beings there to nirvana.”

As mentioned, many Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva statues have a shaven head, like a monk, but others are wearing a hood. In Korea, the popularity of these two types has fluctuated over time. While statues with a shaven head were predominant in the early Goryeo period, those with a hood became more common in the late Goryeo and early Joseon periods. Then in the later Joseon period, those with a shaven head regained popularity.

Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva statues and images come in a wide variety of forms and compositions, including individual statues of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva, Ksitigarbha and Avalokiteshvara as attendant bodhisattvas in Amitabha Buddha triads, Ksitigarbha with the Ten Kings of the Underworld, and Ksitigarbha and Avalokiteshvara as a pair.

As for the latter case, Ksitigarbha and Avalokiteshvara appear together in a collection of repentance rituals entitled Repentance Ritual of the Great Compassion (慈悲道場懺法), which was popular in the late Goryeo and early Joseon period. Additionally, the inscription on the bell of Heungcheonsa Temple, cast in 1462 (during the reign of King Sejo), records that statues of these two bodhisattvas were produced after they appeared in someone’s dream. This stone Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva statue should be understood within the context of these diverse images.

In light of these historical details, let’s review some of the more interesting features of the stone Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva with inscription: “tenth year of Zhengde.” First, the rugged pedestal on which Ksitigarbha is seated might not merely be an ordinary rock, but could be intended to represent Mt. Sumeru, which is the main setting of the Sutra on the Past Vows of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva. Supporting this interpretation, in Buddhist art, Mt. Sumeru is traditionally portrayed as having a wide top and bottom with a narrow center. Thus, this statue might depict Ksitigarbha seated in the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods on Mt. Sumeru, as described in the scripture. Also of note, this statue shows Ksitigarbha wearing a hood, reflecting the prevalent iconography of the late Goryeo and early Joseon periods, before the return of the shaven head in statues of the late Joseon period.

Unfortunately, the patrons of this statue did not provide specific details about their wishes or intentions in producing it. Since there is no mention of commemorating the deceased, it is possible that they had aspirations related to their present lives. The fact that the statue was paired with a statue of Avalokiteshvara supports such speculation.